Meditation

David Fontana

The Benefits of Meditation
Research findings on the benefits of meditation vary, but it is sometimes claimed that physical benefits potentially include relaxation, stress reduction, lower blood pressure, and longer life. Psychological benefits are said to include enhanced creativity, greater pain control, tranquillity, restful sleep, and even the development of psychic powers. Spiritually meditation is said to lead to an understanding of one's real nature and even to enlightenment experiences - moments where one becomes aware of the unity of all things and the presence of the divine.

Meditation Practices
All the great spiritual traditions of East and West have made use of meditation as part of the training of both monks and laypeople, though more emphasis has generally been placed upon this training in the East, where spiritual development is regarded as more self-directed than in the West, where dependency is traditionally placed upon the guidance of the priesthood.

. There are many different meditation practices, but the common element is the importance of concentration. The meditator selects a particular point of focus - e.g. the breathing, a mantra (a sacred phrase or a positive affirmation such as 'I am peaceful'), a candle flame, a mandala (a sacred picture or a geometrical shape) or even a blank wall - and keeps the attention upon it, steadily but lightly. When intrusive thoughts arise, these are ignored. If the attention wanders, it is brought back, patiently but firmly, to the point of focus. With practice, the development of concentration means that the meditator is no longer at the mercy of the constant mental chatter that usually dominates the mind.

Using the Breath
The Buddha, one of the greatest of all meditation teachers, advised focusing on the breath. The breath unites the outer world that surrounds us with the inner world inside us. The meditator focuses either upon the subtle sensation at the base of the nostrils of cool air on the in-breath and warm air on the out-breath, or upon the rise and fall of the abdomen. If thoughts become too intrusive, the breath can be counted silently on each out-breath - from one to ten and then back again to one. Five minutes of this practice once a day may be sufficient initially, at whatever time is most convenient, with the session gradually extended over the weeks to 20 or 30 minutes. As with any skill, regular practice is vital.

The Development of Concentration
An upright posture, with the back straight and the head erect, helps maintain concentration on the breathing. Initially, it is advisable to keep the eyes closed, but as the practice develops, concentration can be maintained even with the eyes open or half-open. Concentration takes time to learn, and patience is important. The mind has been out of control for years, and may fight against attempts to calm it. Some beginners abandon meditation because they consider their minds too busy. But this 'busyness' is the very reason for meditating. With practice the meditator learns to overcome all this inner noise. And as the mind settles down, so tranquillity arises, a tranquillity which can begin to pervade daily life, giving greater control at all times over random thoughts and unwelcome emotions.

Finding a Teacher
The basics of meditation can be learnt from books and articles, but a good teacher can help keep one motivated, and advise against pitfalls such as drifting into a trance-like state. Most meditation classes are run by religious groups, and choice is therefore best left to the individual. Examples in the UK are the Brahma Kumaris, which has an Indian background (details from Global Co-operation House, 65 Pound Lane, London NW10 2HH, Tel: 020 8727 3350), and the Buddhist Society (58 Eccleston Square, London SW1V 1PH, Tel: 020 7834 5858).

Key Texts
There are many good books on meditation, but the great majority are written from the perspective of one or other of the great spiritual traditions. The following list tries to maintain an appropriate balance, and also contains material that looks across the traditions.

Herrigel, E. (1972). Zen in the Art of Archery. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (translated by R. F. C. Hull). ISBN 0 7100 1518 6 (paperback edition ISBN 0 7100 7483 2).
It is difficult to fault this short book, which details the training of philosophy professor Herrigel in Zen archery (a Zen meditation practice) in Japan under Zen Master Kenzo Awa. The quality of Herrigel's writing is matched by the translation from the German by R. F. C. Hull, Carl Jung's leading translator. The spare style of the book captures the stillness and austerity of Zen. Not a word is wasted. (See also Herrigel's The Method of Zen ).

Bucknell, R. and Kang, C. (eds) (1997). The Meditative Way: Readings in the Theory and Practice of Buddhist Meditation. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN 0 7007 0677 1 (paperback edition ISBN 0 7007 0678 X).
An excellent survey of Buddhist meditation, with sections taken from contemporary teachers and from many of the great teachers of the past. The book concludes with a number of personal accounts from experienced meditators.

French, R. M. (trs.) (1972). The Way of a Pilgrim. London: SPCK. ISBN 0 281 02722 6.
A translation, first published in 1930, of a classic of Christian meditation by an anonymous Russian author. The book chronicles the spiritual journey, through meditation and through the vast Russian landscape, of a young Russian who uses as his ever-present mantra the Jesus prayer, much loved by the Russian Orthodox Church ('Lord Jesus Christ Son of God, have mercy on me a sinner'). Rarely out of print, the book has a sequel, also translated by R. M. French, The Pilgrim Continues His Way. Extracts from the Philokalia, the collection of writings by Russian mystics to which the anonymous author makes frequent reference, is published in English by Faber and Faber, and The Prayer of the Heart, by Jesuit George Maloney, is also a very good introduction to the use of the Jesus Prayer.

Monks of the Ramakrishna Order (1984). Meditation. Bourne End, Bucks.: Ramakrishna Vedanta Order. ISBN 0 7025 004 7 (paperback edition ISBN 0 7025 0073 9).
Vedanta, based upon the teaching of the Vedas, some of the oldest spiritual writings in existence, is at the heart of the Hindu religion. This book is one of the most comprehensive and accessible guides to the great tradition of Hindu meditation, beautifully and sensitively written throughout.

Johnston, W. (1977). Silent Music: The Science of Meditation. London: Fount.
An excellent introduction by a Jesuit who lived, taught and studied for many years in Japan, and which thus looks at both Western and Eastern traditions. The Inner Eye of Love: Mysticism and Religion by the same author is also highly recommended.

Tart, C. (1988). Waking Up: Overcoming the Obstacles to Human Potential. Shaftesbury UK: Element Books. ISBN 1 85230 053 1.
This book provides one of the very best incentives to begin serious meditation. Charles Tart surveys the wastage of human potential that arises from our inability to concentrate and focus our minds, and to use thinking as a precious and incisive tool instead of wasting it in idle mental chatter. The same author's Living the Mindful Life is equally good, and provides many practical examples of meditation and its benefits. Also his most recent book, MindScience: Meditation Training for Practical People (2000).

Fontana, D. (1992 and 1998). The Meditator's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Eastern and Western Meditation Techniques. Shaftesbury UK and Rockport USA: Element Books. ISBN 1 85230 320 4.
The book describes approaches from all the great traditions, identifying the particular strengths and applicability of each. See the same author's Teaching Meditation to Children (co-authored with Ingrid Slack); Teach Yourself to Meditate ; and Meditation: An Introductory Guide to Relaxation for Mind and Body.

Solé-Leris, A. (1986). Tranquillity and Insight: An Introduction to the Oldest Form of Buddhist Meditation. London: Rider. ISBN 0 7126 1138 X.
Vipasssana meditation, which places particular emphasis upon the breath, is considered to be the method first taught by the Buddha. Whatever form of mediation one eventually uses, vipassana forms the foundation, and many prefer this method above all others. This book is one of the very best descriptions of Vipassana, taking the reader step by step deeper into the practice. Very highly recommended both for beginners and for advanced practitioners.

Wood, E. (1949). Concentration. Wheaton, Ill.: Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN 0 8356 0176 5.
First published over half a century ago, and rarely out of print since then, Concentration remains one of the very best non-secular approaches to meditation - full of practical advice, and with great emphasis - as indicated by the title - on concentration. Mouni Sadhu's book by the same title, although sadly now out of print, is also a classic on practical ways of developing concentration.

Steinbrecher, E. C. (1988). The Inner Guide Meditation: A Spiritual Technology for the 21st Century. York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0 87728 657 4.
Finally, something very different. Steinbrecher's book is grounded in Western mystery traditions and Jungian psychology, and his concern is with the use of visualisation in meditation as an approach to inner guides (or archetypes if you prefer). An intriguing and stimulating book. Different in approach, but also dealing with non-secular visualisation practices, Ken Keyes Handbook to Higher Consciousness: The Science of Happiness has sold by the hundreds of thousands; even serious Buddhists seem to like it!

Professor David Fontana is Visiting Professor of Transpersonal Psychology at Liverpool John Moores University, Chair of the British Psychological Society Transpersonal Section and a former President of the Society for Psychical Research.