Transpersonal Psychology
The Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) experienced, studied, and wrote about the transpersonal and the paranormal throughout his life. These interests shaped his entire psychological theory, not least such distinctively Jungian concepts as the collective unconscious (a universal, innate, pre-structured level of the unconscious psyche), archetypes (predispositions to form coherent images in aroused emotional states), individuation (the process of realising one's self in its unique individuality), and the self (the hypothetical centre and totality of the psyche). Contrary to the mainstream of twentieth century psychological thinking, as well as Freudian psychoanalytic thinking, Jung stressed that the psyche includes a goal-oriented, spiritual function that can generate and organise imagery and behaviour autonomously and is not reducible to the personal life history of the experiencer.
In his later works Jung moved towards a view that the inner psychic world and the outer physical world are aspects of a more fundamental unitary reality transcending not only psyche and matter but also space and time. This idea, the culmination of his interest in the transpersonal and paranormal, received its most far-reaching exploration in his writings on synchronicity. Simply put, synchronicity is the view that psychic and physical events that are not connected by any normal cause ('acausal events') nevertheless may be connected through the meaning they jointly express (as 'meaningful coincidences'). For example, just when a patient was telling Jung a dream about being given a jewel in the form of a scarab beetle, a scarabaeid beetle appeared at the consulting room window. The image of the scarab beetle, which is a traditional symbol of rebirth, was deeply meaningful within this particular therapeutic situation. Jung took such parallel events both as evidence for and as expressions of the unitary nature of reality.
Influenced by considerations not only from psychology but also from modern physics, parapsychology, practical divination, esotericism, and the history of philosophy and religion, the theory of synchronicity can be seen as an attempt on Jung's part to resolve a tension he experienced both in his culture and in his own nature between the domains of personal (religious) meaning and objective (scientific) knowledge. It is a difficult and controversial theory, the complexities and implications of which have still not been fully worked out. Recent studies have explored the implications of the theory for psychotherapy, holistic science, parapsychology, and religion. The theory has also been examined in relation to the personal, social, and intellectual contexts within which Jung developed it. Not infrequently, synchronicity has been appropriated as a theoretical or experiential component in forms of New Age spirituality. The continuing widespread interest in synchronicity probably stems, at a theoretical level, from the challenge it purportedly represents to the causal foundations of secular western thought, and, at a practical level, from its being such a commonly occurring form of anomalous and numinous experience.
Dr Roderick Main is Research Fellow at the Centre for Psychoanalytic Studies, University of Essex and Associate Lecturer in the Arts, Open University.
Jung, C. G. (1987 [1955]). Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7448-0031-5.
This is Jung's principal discussion of his theory of synchronicity. It is a difficult but immensely inspiring text that invokes not only psychology but also modern physics, parapsychology, practical divination, esotericism, and the history of philosophy and religion. It is essential reading but may require some preparation.
Main, R. (ed.) (1997). Jung on Synchronicity and the Paranormal. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15509-6.
This anthology of Jung's other writings on synchronicity and the paranormal provides a helpful and enriching companion to Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. The introduction clarifies Jung's own paranormal and mystical experiences, the wide range of influences that contributed to his theory of synchronicity, and the central ideas of that theory.
Jung, C. G. (1995 [1963]). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. London: Fontana. ISBN 0-00-654027-9.
Recorded and edited by Aniela Jaffé. Translated from the German by Richard and Clara Winston. Though not strictly an autobiography, this book contains copious first person contributions from Jung in which he reveals his most intimate religious experiences and reflections. For an inspiring introduction to the 'myth' of Jung's life and work, this is the book to read.
Storr, A. (ed.) (1998 [1983]). The Essential Jung: Selected Writings. London: Fontana. ISBN 0-00-653065-6.
This well-ordered anthology provides a coherent overview of Jung's psychology and clearly shows its transpersonal emphasis. The selections from Jung are prefaced by brief but helpful editorial commentary.
Jung, C. G. (1982 [1977]). Psychology and the Occult. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9253-9.
This useful collection provides the full texts of Jung's medical dissertation, which is a study of a medium, as well as of other essays on spiritualism, apparitions, belief in an afterlife, and related subjects.
Franz, Marie-Louise von (1992). Psyche and Matter. Boston & London: Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-902-1.
The twelve essays in this volume by one of Jung's closest collaborators extend Jung's thinking on synchronicity in relation to number and time, mind and matter, and the engagement of Jungian psychology with natural sciences. (Also of interest are the same author's Number and Time: Reflections Leading Towards a Unification of Psychology and Physics [1974] and On Divination and Synchronicity: The Psychology of Meaningful Chance [1980].)
Combs, A. and Holland, M. (1994 [1990]). Synchronicity: Science, Myth and the Trickster. Edinburgh: Floris Books. ISBN 0-86315-207-4.
This lucid and engaging introduction considers various scientific frameworks for understanding synchronicity (including the theories of Kammerer, Bohm, Sheldrake, de Chardin, and Prigogine). It also discusses synchronicity from a more literary and imaginative angle in relation to myth.
Peat, F. D. (1987). Synchronicity: The Bridge between Matter and Mind. New York: Bantam. ISBN 0-553-34321-1.
This is another attempt to relate synchronicity to developing ideas in science. It begins in a Newtonian universe of mechanism and ends in a Bohmian universe of limitlessly unfolding and transforming consciousness. The book is thin on examples and doesn't convey much of the experienced quality of synchronicity, but it provides some useful theoretical perspectives.
Aziz, R. (1990). C. G. Jung's Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0167-7.
This careful study lucidly demonstrates the profound significance Jung's theory of synchronicity has for his psychology of religion. It is a scholarly yet accessible account of Jung's thinking on both religion and synchronicity.
Mansfield, V. (1995). Synchronicity, Science, and Soul-Making: Understanding Jungian Synchronicity through Physics, Buddhism, and Philosophy. Chicago and La Salle, ILL: Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9304-3.
This book explores synchronicity in relation to Jungian psychology, modern physics, and Buddhism. It disentangles some long-standing confusions about synchronicity and is exemplary in its cautious handling of the relationship between physics and psychology. Though difficult in places, the book is well paced with rich and lively case material interspersing the main text.
Charet, F. X. (1993). Spiritualism and the Foundations of C. G. Jung's Psychology. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-1094-3.
This thorough historical study contextualises Jung's interest in the paranormal in relation to late nineteenth century Spiritualism and engagements between religion and science. It carefully documents and discusses Jung's lifelong preoccupation with spiritualistic phenomena.