From the 1940s on, a new paradigm has been emerging, which can be described as a systems approach in the widest sense, with very great generality. Aspects of the modern revolutions in mathematics, physics, biology, psychology, sociology, economics, and other branches of knowledge can be viewed as special cases. Broadly, the systems approach can be divided into systems theory and systems practice , although both these aspects are often applied together in various examples of systems thinking , which tries to achieve some unity of theory and practice. The principal examples of systems theory are general systems theory, cybernetics, and unified philosophy, and complexity theory is also closely related. Systems practice is conducted in a holistic way by practical people in various walks of life who apply the systems approach to the specific practical problems with which they are faced; they may or may not also attempt to apply some type of system theory. Examples of more practically oriented systems thinking include operational research and 'systems analysis'. Books about most of these forms of the systems approach are covered in the Key Texts below, but some of them are excluded, partly because they are too technical or too peripheral to the main streams of the systems approach, and partly because their inclusion would make the list too long.
General systems theory (GST) identifies certain ideas, principles, and methods that have been found to apply to most if not all branches of knowledge. It usually has a mathematical formulation, which expresses these concepts in terms of general mathematical structures and applies them in general mathematical models. Cybernetics was defined by its founder as "the science of communication and control in the animal and the machine", but is in many respects is very similar to GST. There are various forms of unified philosophy which attempt to apply the systems approach to the universe as a whole and to all aspects of life; they include 'universalist philosophy' and 'unified practical philosophy', but they are beyond the scope of this article. Operational research (called operations research in North America) is the application of scientific methods to management problems and decision making; it was originally 'organised common sense' but now uses a wide range of mathematical techniques. 'Systems analysis' has several meanings, ranging from the scientific analysis of systems to the analysis of user requirements for computing and data processing systems. There are many scientific periodicals covering the different strands of system thinking, and the Open University has several courses, with their own textbooks, covering various aspects of it.
Alan Mayne is a self-employed author, editor, personal computer specialist and researcher. Latest books: 'Into the 21st Century: A Handbook for a Sustainable Future' (co-author), 'Resources for the Future: An International Annotated Bibliography for the 21st Century' . editor of 'New Paradigms Newsletter'.
Waddington, C. H. (2nd Ed. 1987) Tools for Thought. St Albans: Paladin/Granada Publishing.
Presents a wide array of models and techniques of thinking about the world, which is viewed as a series of interacting systems, going beyond simple cause-and-effect relationships. Perhaps the best introductory book on systems thinking in general and on specific forms of it, including GST, cybernetics, and operational research, together with allied subjects such as futures research and, in nonlinear mathematics, catastrophe theory.
Beishon, J. and Peters, G. (Eds.) (1972) Systems Behaviour. London & New York: Harper & Row. ISBNs 06-31-318010-3 & 06-318011-1.
A collection of 19 papers and articles on systems, arising from the development of an Open University Course, and illustrating the nature of the systems approach and how to apply it. Explains the main contributions of the systems approach to several different areas, with relevant literature references. Topics include: systems modelling; biological, economic, and social systems; systems engineering; systems psychology; and two case studies of urban systems.
Hitchins, D. K. (1992) Putting Systems to Work. Chichester & New York. ISBN 0-471-93426-7.
Presents a radical apporach to both systems theory and systems practice. The author introduces his own idea of a 'General Systems Hypothesis', which provides a bridge between 'soft' and 'hard' systems thinking, together with tools and techniques for the best practice. Wide ranging, practical, and extensively illustrated with case studies.
Bignell, V. and Fortune, J. (1984) Understanding Systems Failures. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-0973-1.
Outlines a common approach to the understanding of many different kinds of failures, of: machines, individuals, groups, and businesses. Discusses twelve case histories, each resulting from a variety of faults and failures. Analyses failures through an approach based on identifying the systems that failed and comparing them with a variety of standard systems.
Laszlo, Ervin. (1991) The Age of Bifurcation: Understanding the Changing World. New York & Reading: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
Applies systems concepts and the emerging 'sciences of complexity' to the problems faced by humanity as it approaches and enters the 21st century, and includes a model of holistic thinking for shaping a new age. Shows that society faces a major transformation, and applies new scientific concepts to the environment, economic systems, political systems, and culture. Finally, suggests how to change the crisis-bound path of civilisation to create a stable, humane world for the future.
Von Bertalanffy, L. (2nd Ed. 1991) General System Theory. London: Allen Lane. 0-7139-0192-6.
Book by the founder of 'general system theory', which emerged in the late 1940s and later became known as 'general systems theory' (GST). Presents the fundamental ideas of this approach, and shows how it identifies certain concepts, principles, and methods that apply broadly to very branch of knowledge. For example, its new, holistic approach can be used as a basis for the better organisation of society.
Hanson, B. G. (1995) General Systems Theory: Beginning with Wholes. Bristol, PA, USA & London: Taylor & Francis. ISBNs 1-56032-345-0 & 1-56032-346-9.
Presents the central 'traditional' ideas of GST, together with new ideas moving into the 21st century, in clear and simple language, with a focus on the social sciences. Considers human meaning-making as a vital feature of human contexts, and introduces a new concept of 'parallogic': that logic is parallel in differing contexts, so that we can think about 'multiverses' rather than the universe, 'realities' rather than reality. Examines many everyday examples, and concepts in relation to ideas from 32 systems theories.
Klir, G.J. et al. (1991) Facets of Systems Science. New York & London: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-43959-X.
Helps its readers to develop an adequate general impression of systems science, its main historical roots, its relationships with other areas of human affairs, its current status, and its likely future role. Also identifies sources for further studies of various aspects of systems science.
Pask, G. (1961) An Approach to Cybernetics. London: Hutchinson. No ISBN. This book by a leading pioneer of cybernetics is a useful non-specialist introduction to the basic science of cybernetics as developed in its earlier days. It gives an insight into cybernetic processes, and outlines the principles of control systems, biological controllers, teaching machines, and the evolution and reproduction of cybernetic machines.
Wiener, N. (3rd Ed. 1968) The Human Use of Human Beings. London: Sphere Books, SBN 7221-9134-0.
This book by the founder of cybernetics discusses and explains some wider philosophical implications of cybernetics, including its human and social implications. Topics covered include: communication, learning, language, law, social policy, industry, and some examples of cybernetic machines.
Beer, S. (1975) Platform for Change. Chichester & New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-06189-1.
Provides a broad perspective of the approach of cybernetics, including applications to government and the achievement of social change. A new sort of book for a new sort of world, proposing a new sort of systems outlook to prevent society from 'going over the cliff'. This book is itself a system to interlock narrative, arguments of change, and comments to generate theses.
Moder, J. J. and Elmagrabhy, S. E. (eds.) (1978) Handbook of Operations Research. New York & London: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
A comprehensive two-volume survey of the state of the art in the late 1970s of most aspects of operational research (OR). Intended for those with some experience of OR. A preliminary elementary introduction to OR can be found in Waddington (1987), and Beer (1975) includes references to aspects of OR in a non-technical form.